2 Race in the United States
In the late 1500s, colonists arrived in the Americas with the terms “White” and “slavery” already part of their vernacular. Although “race” was also a familiar term, its meaning evolved to meet the needs of the developing country. Over time, “race” became a mechanism for identifying non-White individuals, further distinguishing groups labeled as savages (Native Americans) and those deemed subhuman (people of African descent). This construction facilitated the emergence of a privileged class of people, based solely on outward appearance, which succeeded in uniting the White population while systematically marginalizing all others[1].
In the early 1600s, Africans were forcibly brought to the land that would later become the United States as enslaved laborers. European indentured servants and enslaved Indigenous people were also exploited for their labor, often working together and interacting socially. During this period, slavery was not strictly race-based, nor was it always an irrevocable condition. However, as land ownership became a critical means of acquiring and consolidating wealth among the colonists, the expansion of landholdings created a growing demand for labor. Over time, Africans became the predominant source of enslaved labor, as colonists came to believe their economic prosperity depended on a permanent system of racial slavery. This institutionalization of slavery entrenched social hierarchies and ensured that economic and political power remained concentrated in the hands of the White elite.
“America would come to be defined by the language of freedom and the acceptance of slavery. Along with the revolutionary ideas of liberty and equality, slavery concerns began to surface as black colonists embraced the meaning of freedom, and the British abolished slavery within their lands. The fledgling United States sought to establish itself and had to wrestle with the tension borne from the paradox of liberty. It became necessary to develop new rationales and arguments to defend the institution of slavery. How does one justify holding a human as property? Major political leaders and thinkers of American history promoted theories of difference and degeneracy about nonwhite people that grew in the late-18th century. Physical differences were merged with status differences and coalesced to form a social hierarchy that placed “white” at the top and “black” at the bottom. By the beginning of the 19th century, “white” was an identity that designated a privileged, landholding, (usually male) status. Having “whiteness” meant having clear rights in the society while not being white signified your freedoms, rights, and property were unstable, if not, nonexistent. Ironically, Jefferson and Locke also both made arguments for the idea of inferior “races,” thereby supporting the development of the United States’ culture of racism. Their support of inferior races justified the dispossession of American Indians and the enslavement of Africans in the era of revolution. It was this racial ideology that formed the foundation for the continuation of American chattel slavery and the further entrenchment of anti-blackness.”[2]
The ideology of white supremacy that emerged alongside these developments provided a moral and intellectual justification for the exploitation and dehumanization of African and Indigenous people. Pseudoscientific theories of racial difference were promoted to legitimize the belief that non-White individuals were inherently inferior and suited to enslavement. These theories shaped the creation of legal categories based on the premise that “Black and Native Americans were different, less than human, and innately, intellectually, and morally inferior— and therefore subordinate—to White individuals.” [3]This ideology not only rationalized the existing social order but also perpetuated a cycle of violence and discrimination that would persist for centuries.
The concepts of “race” and “slavery” in the Americas were deeply intertwined from the outset, yet they evolved to serve the economic and social needs of the colonists. The shift toward a race-based system of slavery was driven by economic imperatives and reinforced by emerging racial ideologies, creating a society that systematically marginalized non-White individuals while privileging those of European descent. This legacy of racial inequality and exploitation has had enduring consequences, shaping the social and political landscape of the United States to this day.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
Preamble to the Declaration of Independence
American colonists owned enslaved people even as they fought for freedom from British rule, despite the institution directly contradicting the values of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness outlined in the Declaration of Independence. At the 1787 Constitutional Convention, conflicts arose over how enslaved people would be counted for purposes of taxation and representation. Southern States, which had large enslaved populations, wanted each individual slave to be counted fully, while Northern states, which had fewer enslaved people, opposed the idea. The delegates ultimately agreed that each enslaved person would be counted as three-fifths of a free person. While the Three-Fifths Compromise granted Southern slaveholding states greater political power, the interests and humanity of the enslaved were considered. Slaves were denied freedom, autonomy, and humanity until slavery was abolished in 1865.
Liberty & Slavery: The Paradox of America’s Founding Fathers
The United States Census
The racial makeup of the United States has been measured since the first U.S. Census conducted in 1790. Over the years, the race and ethnicity data collected by the U.S. Census Bureau have been shaped by and are reflective of shifts in social, political, and economic factors, including emancipation, immigration, and the civil rights movement.
Notably, the first census in 1790 recognized only three groups: enslaved people, free White people, and all other free persons. Some racial categories have changed over time, while others have remained consistent. The term “White” has been used since the 1790 census, whereas In comparison, the descriptions of other groups have shifted or been added as classifications evolved.[4]
Measuring Race and Ethnicity Across the Decades: 1790-2010
This interactive visualization shows how race and ethnicity categories have changed over time since the 1st US Census in 1790:
- Roediger, David R. “Historical Foundations of Race.” National Museum of African American History and Culture, Smithsonian, 11 Oct. 2019, nmaahc.si.edu/learn/talking-about-race/topics/historical-foundations-race. Accessed 29 Oct. 2024. ↵
- https://nmaahc.si.edu/learn/talking-about-race/topics/historical-foundations-race ↵
- Bailey, Zinzi D., et al. "Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: evidence and interventions." The Lancet 389.10077 (2017): 1453-1463. ↵
- https://www.census.gov/newsroom/blogs/random-samplings/2015/11/measuring-race-and-ethnicity-across-the-decades-1790-2010.html ↵
